AFRICA: Sitatunga The Aquatic Antelopes Of Africa

The sitatunga or marshbuck (Tragelaphus spekii) is a swamp-dwelling antelope found throughout central Africa, centering on the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Cameroon, parts of Southern Sudan, Ghana, Botswana, Zambia, Gabon, Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya.

The sitatunga is a medium-sized antelope. Males reach approximately 81–116 cm (32–46 in) at the shoulder, while females reach 72–90 cm (28–35 in). Males typically weigh 76–119 kg (168–262 lb), while females weigh 24–57 kg.

The sitatunga has a shaggy, water-resistant coat which varies in colour. The body and feet of this antelope are specially adapted to its swampy habitat. Only the males possess horns; these are spiral in shape, have one or two twists and are 45–92 cm (18–36 in) long.

The sitatunga is native to Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

Sitatunga are active mainly during the early hours after dawn, the last one or two hours before dusk, and night. They are not territorial. Sitatunga are selective in what they eat and feed mainly on new foliage, fresh grasses, aquatic plants, sedges and browse.

Females are sexually mature by one year of age, while males take one and a half years to mature. Breeding occurs throughout the year but peaks in the dry season. Gestation lasts for nearly eight months, after which generally a single calf is born. Lifespan is 22 to 23 years.

The sitatunga is confined to swampy and marshy habitats. Here they occur in tall and dense vegetation as well as seasonal swamps, marshy clearings in forests, riparian thickets and mangrove swamps. Habitat loss is the most severe threat to the survival of the sitatunga.

The species has been classified under the Least Concern category by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), and under Appendix III (Ghana) of the Washington Convention (CITES).

Though the population is sporadic in some countries, the animal is common in many areas such as the Okavango Delta and Bangweulu Swamp.

The scientific name of the sitatunga is Tragelaphus spekii. The species was first described by the English explorer John Hanning Speke in 1863.

Speke first observed the sitatunga at Lake Lwelo, located in Kagera, Tanzania. In his book Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile, Speke called the animal nzoe the Kiswahili name for the animal or water-boc due to its resemblance to the waterbuck.

Within Tragelaphus, the kewel, bongo, sitatunga and nyala are very close relatives. The bushbuck, that includes both imbabala (T. sylvaticus) and kewel, and sitatunga are genetically similar enough to hybridise. Hybrids between bongo and sitatunga have proved to be fertile.

The sitatunga is more variable in its general characters than any other member of the tribe Strepsicerotini, that consists of the genera Taurotragus or elands and Tragelaphus, probably because of their confinement to swampy and marshy habitats.

On the basis of physical characteristics such as hair texture, coat colour and the coat stripes, up to ten subspecies of the sitatunga have been described. However, these factors may not be reliable since hair texture could vary with the climate, while pelage colour and markings vary greatly among individuals.

The coat might darken and the stripes and spots on it might fade with age, especially in males. The species might even be monotypic, however, based on different drainage systems, three distinct subspecies are currently known:

- Nile sitatunga or East African sitatunga. Found in the Nile watershed.

- Congo sitatunga or forest sitatunga. Found in western and central Africa.

- Southern sitatunga or Zambezi sitatunga. Found in southern Africa.

The sitatunga is a medium-sized antelope. It is sexually dimorphic, with males considerably larger than females. The head-and-body length is typically between 136–177 cm (54–70 in) in males and 104–146 cm (41–57 in) in females.

Males reach approximately 81–116 cm at the shoulder, while females reach 72–90 cm.

Males typically weigh 76–119 kg, while females weigh 24–57 kg. The tail is 14–37 cm long. The saucer-shaped ears are 11–17 cm long.The sitatunga is almost indistinguishable from the nyala, except in pelage and spoor.

The coat colour varies geographically, but, in general, is a rufous red in juveniles and chestnut in females. There are white facial markings, as well as several stripes and spots all over, though they are only faintly visible.

White patches can be seen on the throat, near the head and the chest. A pair of inguinal scent glands are present.The coats of males darken with age, becoming gray to dark brown. Males develop a rough and scraggy mane, usually brown in colour, and a white dorsal stripe.

There is a chevron between the eyes of the males.

The body and legs of this antelope are specially adapted to its swampy habitat. The hooves of the male are elongated and widely splayed.

The rubbery, shaggy, water-repellent coat is minimally affected by slimy and muddy vegetation. The wedge-like shape and lowering of the head, coupled with the backward bend of the horns in males provides for easy navigation through dense vegetation.

The pasterns are flexible, and the hooves, banana-like in shape, can reach a length of up to 16 cm in the hindlegs and 18 cm in the forelegs.

The pointed toes allow it to walk slowly and almost noiselessly through the water. Moreover, the colour of the coat provides an excellent camouflage.

Hearing is acute, and the ears are so structured that the animal can accurately determine the direction from where a sound has originated. This adaptation is of profound use in habitats where long sight is of very little value due to the density and darkness of the environment.

Sitatunga are active mainly during the early hours after dawn, the last one or two hours before dusk, and at night, and spend a large part of this time feeding.

Sedentary, they rest in flat areas and reed beds, especially during the hotter part of the day. They seldom leave their swamp habitat during the daytime. Though sitatunga commonly form pairs or remain solitary, larger groups have also been observed.

A study in Kenya recorded a herd of as many as nine individuals, comprising an adult male, four females and four juveniles. Loose groups may be formed but interaction among individuals is very low. Individuals generally associate only with their own sex.

The sitatunga is not territorial. Males may engage in locking horns with other males and attacking vegetation using their horns. They may perform feinting by raising their forelegs with the hindlegs rooted in the ground as a threat display.

Sitatunga interact with each other by first touching their noses, which may be followed by licking each other and nibbling.

Alarmed animals may stand motionless, with the head held high and one leg raised. Sitatunga may occasionally emit a series of coughs or barks, usually at night, which may cause other animals to join in, and these sounds can be heard across the swamp.

This barking may be used by females to warn off other females. Males often utter a low bellow on coming across a female or a herd of females in the mating season. A low-pitched squeak may be uttered while feeding. Mothers communicate with their calves by bleats.

Sitatunga can feed or rest close to southern lechwe herds, but do not interact with them.

Sitatunga attract yellow-billed oxpeckers, African jacanas and great egrets. Sitatunga are good swimmers, but limit themselves to water with profuse vegetation in order to escape crocodiles.

In some cases, for instance when troubled by flies or pursued by predators, the sitatunga might fully submerge themselves in the water except for the nose and the eyes, which they keep slightly above the water surface.

Due to its close association with water, the sitatunga are often described as aquatic antelopes, like the waterbuck. They often dry themselves under the sun after feeding in water. Predators of the sitatunga include lions, wild dogs, crocodiles and leopards

Sitatunga are selective and mixed feeders. They feed mainly on new foliage, fresh grasses, sedges and browse.

Preferred plants for Sitatunga: bullrushes (Typha), sedges (Cyperus), aquatic grasses (Vossia, Echinochloa, Pennisetum, Leersia, Acroceras and Panicum.

Species in Umbelliferae and Acanthaceae are preferred in Saiwa Swamp National Park (Kenya), and Fabaceae species are preferred in Bangweulu and Busanga Kafue National Park. They feed mostly in the wetland fringes.

Diet preferences may vary seasonally in swamps where water levels change notably. Like the gerenuk, the sitatunga may stand on its hindlegs to reach higher branches of trees, or even use its horns to pull down the branches.

A study recorded forty major species eaten by the animal, the majority of which were herbs. Sweet potato was the most preferred crop. The study predicted an increase in preference for crops due to seasonal food variations.

Another study showed that annual floods affect the seasonal movement and diet of the species. These floods force the animals out of the reed beds onto the flooded grasslands when the water levels are high.

At low water levels the cattle take over the flooded plains and send the sitatunga back to their original place.

Females are sexually mature by one year of age, while males take one-and-a-half-year before they mature. Breeding occurs throughout the year. When females gather, the males compete among each other for the right to mate, showing polygyny in males.

The rutting male approaches the female in a lower bending posture, sniffing her vulva. The female may move slowly or react nervously. Even if the female flees, the male continues pursuing her steadily, without showing any sign of hurry.

A receptive female will raise her head with her mouth wide open, following which the male will begin attempts at mounting. At the time of mounting the female lowers her head, while the male first bends and then straightens his forelegs and rests his head and neck on her back.

The two remain together for one or two days, during which time the male ensures that no other male can approach the female.

Gestation lasts for nearly eight months, after which generally a single calf is born. Parturition occurs throughout the year, though a peak may occur in the dry season. Calves are hidden adroitly, and brought out of cover only in the presence of many other sitatunga.

The mother gazes and nods at the calf to summon it for nursing. A calf follows its mother about even after she has given birth to another calf. The mother suckles and licks her calf for about six months.

The calf takes time to master the specialised gait of the sitatunga, and thus often loses its balance and falls in water.

Males, and even some females, have been observed to leave their herds even before reaching sexual maturity due to intrasexual competition. Lifespan recorded in captivity averages 22 to 23 years.

The sitatunga is an amphibious antelope that live on both land and water confined to swampy and marshy habitats. They occur in tall and dense vegetation of perennial as well as seasonal swamps, marshy clearings in forests, riparian thickets and mangrove swamps.

Sitatunga move along clearly marked tracks in their swampy habitat, often leading to reed beds. These tracks, up to 7 m (23 ft) wide, can lead to feeding grounds and nearby riverine forests.

The sitatunga hold small home ranges near water bodies In savannas, they are typically found in stands of papyrus and reeds,Phragmites species and Echinochloa pyramidalis. They share their habitat with the Nile lechwe in the Sudd swamps and with the southern lechwe in Angola, Botswana and Zambia.

It is extinct in Niger, where it formerly occurred in the Lake Chad region, and is feared to be extinct in Togo, where its habitat has been taken over by dense human settlements.

While it is localised and sporadic in western Africa, the sitatunga is still common in the forests of central Africa and certain swampy regions in central, eastern and southern Africa.

Habitat loss is the most severe threat to the survival of the sitatunga. Other threats include the increasing loss of wetlands, that has isolated populations; and long-term changes in the water level, that affects the nearby vegetation and thus bears upon their diet.

Vast areas of Bangweulu and Busanga are burnt every year, placing animals like the sitatunga at grave risk given the inflammability of swamps. The sitatunga has been classified under the Least Concern category by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN).

In Senegal, intensive hunting for meat and habitat degradation have made the sitatunga very rare. Formerly it was common throughout Gambia, but now it is confined to a few inaccessible swamps; a population has been introduced in the Abuko Nature Reserve.

On the other hand, though the animal is hunted by locals primarily for food, Botswana still supports a large portion of the total population. The species is of great economic significance for northern Botswana, that produces some of the world's biggest sitatunga trophies.

Its status is unclear in Chad, Ghana, Guinea, Burundi and Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Significant populations still exist in countries such as Cameroon, Central African Republic, The Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Tanzania and Zambia.

The inaccessibility of its habitat has rendered population estimates very difficult. In 1999, Rod East of the IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group estimated a total population of 170,000, but this is likely to be an overestimate.

Its numbers are decreasing in areas of heavy human settlement, but are stable elsewhere.

Around 40 percent of the populations based on the overestimate of 170,000 occurs in protected areas, mainly in:

- Okavango Delta and Linyanti and Chobe swamps (Botswana)

- Dja Faunal Reserve and Lobeke National Park (Cameroon)

- Bangassou (Central African Republic)

- Odzala National Park

- Lake Tele Community Reserve

- Likouala and Salongo (The Democratic Republic of Congo)

- Monte Alen National Park (Equatorial Guinea)

- Saiwa Swamp National Park (Kenya)

- Akagera National Park (Rwanda)

- Moyowosi Game Reserves (Tanzania)

- Kigosi Game Reserves (Tanzania)

- Bangweulu swamps (Zambia)

- Busanga swamps (Zambia).

Few are of these parks and reserves are well-protected and managed.




Tourism Observer

ZAMBIA: Dreams Become Reality In The Central Kafue

“If your dreams don’t scare you they aren’t big enough”. We have reminded ourselves of these words so many times over the last five years or so since we began our journey to open a Bush Camp in Zambia.

Rather than investing in one of the established and developed National Parks we wanted to find a lesser known area that needed to be brought to the attention of the discerning traveller. Zambia’s Wildlife Authority had already embarked upon a visionary programme to restore the Kafue National Park as a secure repository of biodiversity with global significance as well as a world-renowned tourist destination. We had found the place to start searching for our dream.

We already knew the KNP from previous trips there but only the northern and southern sectors were accessible to tourists at that time. But, it was the central sector of the park that captured our imagination because it had been, to a large extent, inaccessible to tourists for many years. Due to the degradation of the Spinal Road that ran through the park there was no permanent human presence and poaching had taken its toll. It cried out for active conservation to help restore it to its former glory of past decades.

In 2010 we explored the park and looked at various designated sites. We knew of plans to re-grade the Spinal Road so we re-traced its route south, a slow journey through overgrown bush. Andy finally found the perfect location for our camp using Google Earth.

We visited our potential site in February 2011 by boat, in the height of the rainy season, and immediately fell in love with it. The interesting stretch of Kafue River, palm-covered islands and stunning views were all too wonderful to keep to ourselves.

So, we began the long journey to secure our site and attain the permission to build our camp. During the wait the Spinal Road re-opened in 2012 – perfect timing, our hopes had been fulfilled.

We chose to build in a designated Wild Zone; an undisturbed environment of natural resources, particularly wildlife. Such areas are regulated to minimise adverse impact due to human activities. The wildlife resource for the KNP includes 158 species of mammal, more antelope species than any other park in Africa and is listed as one of Zambia’s “Important Bird Areas” by the Zambian Ornithological Society. We were now in a position to support this protection with our presence.

After a lot of blood, sweat and tears we opened Kasabushi Campsite at Easter 2014. The opportunity to camp within this protected zone of the park has been welcomed by so many nature lovers. The pristine bush and lack of development has been enjoyed by wonderful people from all over the world wanting to experience the real Africa. Having the park pretty much to themselves due to the lack of people and other vehicles is something that visitors to the Central KNP really appreciate. The park is as much about what it doesn’t have as what is there to be enjoyed.

It has taken us a further two years to design and build our Bush Camp. The final part of our building project is well on its way to completion. Kasabushi Camp opens to guests in August this year.

The camp is the “Heart of the Kafue” due to the labour of love that has gone into creating it as well as its central location within the park. It’s also our home in the bush and we are looking forward to enjoying it with our first full-board guests in the coming months.

Our presence in the park has already encouraged an increased wildlife population in the last three years. Antelope are beginning to feel at home around the camp and our resident laughing hippos are our constant neighbours. Predator numbers are consequently increasing and we are enjoying regular sightings of Wild Dog, Leopard and Lion. The Central Kafue has an abundance of wildlife and the harder you look the luckier you get.

The Central Kafue is definitely back on the safari map and just waiting to be discovered. Our journey is far from over. We will continue to help protect the area whilst encouraging bush lovers to visit and enjoy what we have loved from the moment we first set our eyes on it.

ZAMBIA: When A Warthog Attacks In The Kafue

It was whilst on an afternoon drive from Musekese Camp, Jeffery & McKeith Safaris in north central Kafue National Park, Zambia that we witnessed the most unexpected and, as far a we know, as yet photographically un-documented sighting ever…

We had just had the first brief rainstorm of the season and the wildlife was noticeably excited and full of energy, with young animals running around merrily and the migratory birds in their hundreds picking off the newly hatching ants and termites.

As we rounded a bend in a very attractive stretch of miombo woodland our guide Tyrone heard the frantic alarm calls of a herd of impala. Putting his binoculars to his eyes he shouted almost immediately, let’s go! As we moved further along the track to get a better look at what the commotion was all about, he was explaining that he had seen a grey shape tussling with what looked to be a young impala.

Tyrone assumed it was a baboon snatching an easy kill (as sometimes happens at this plentiful time of year). What we found however was emphatically not a baboon, but a lone, single warthog acting rather franticly, but what was it doing exactly?

The other guests in the vehicle were asked to use their camcorders to record this moment, which they did. We sat and watched as a still very much alive and kicking young impala was set upon, attacked and gored to death by the warthog. In what seemed to be a frantic rage the warthog would tusk and stab and throw the kicking body of the impala around the woodland, all the time the mother of the baby was alarm calling and frantically running to and fro in an attempt to distract the killer warthog. It was so very strange to watch this unfold, it was a typical scene and setting, one that you might expect to find from a ‘typical’ predator.

Tyrone explained that it was not wholly uncommon to find warthog (and a number of other unexpected species) feeding on carcasses or carrion, especially at this time of year (the end of the dry season, when wildlife is a little more stressed and certain minerals and salts may not be so ready available in the bush). But to witness a warthog actively catch, kill and consume a baby impala was something that was very hard to explain. One wonders how often this may actually happen but we simply do not see it. We did feel sorry for the impala mother however, as who needs enemies when you’ve got friends like the warthog!

Larger than South Africa’s Kruger, Kafue National Park is the largest national park in Zambia but remains relatively unknown and unexplored. It is one of the last real wilderness areas left in Africa, home to vital global carnivore population including wild dog, lion, leopard and cheetah as well as one of Southern Africa’s most important elephant populations.

Written by Sarah Davies from Game Rangers International

ZAMBIA: ZAWA Boost Efforts To Protect The Pangolin

In the past week, Zambia Wildlife Authority (ZAWA) has rescued six pangolins through four separate operations across western Zambia. These scaly anteaters had been illegally captured from the wild by poachers and were being sold as part of the illegal wildlife trade.

GRI Wildlife Veterinary Project has assisted ZAWA in releasing four of the pangolins back into wild in Kafue National Park. Sadly two died as a result of their capture, one of which was a premature newborn whose mother gave birth due to stress.

Pangolins are often trafficked because their scales are prized in traditional Chinese medicine. In Zambia it has been reported that some cultures put a pangolin scale in their business cash box to protect their money. Other cultures believe that if the pangolin is fed special foods for a few days and then killed and opened a diamond will be found inside.

CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) has reported that these scaly anteaters are now the most hunted animal on the planet. Making matters worse, the female pangolin only gestates once per year, so opportunities for reproduction are limited.

GRI Wildlife Crime Prevention Project provides operational support to the ZAWA Intelligence and Investigations Unit involved in these anti-trafficking operations to deter and prevent the illegal wildlife trade in Zambia.